Engineering and Construction

There have been extensive studies on the detrimental effects of frost, which can impact both pavements and foundations (Casagrande, 1932b; Kaplar, 1970; Yong and Warkentin, 1975; Reed et al., 1979). Two common types of damage related to frost are: (1) freezing of water in cracks, and (2) formation of ice lenses.
In many cases, deterioration or damage is not evident until the frost has melted.

In these instances, it may be difficult for the geotechnical engineer to conclude that frost was the primary cause of the deterioration.

There is about a 10 percent increase in volume of water when it freezes and this volumetric expansion of water upon freezing can cause deterioration or damage to many different types of materials. Common examples include rock slopes and concrete, as discussed below.

1. Rock slopes. The expansive forces of freezing water results in a deterioration of the rock mass, additional fractures, and added driving (destabilizing) forces. Feld and Carper (1997) describe several rock slope failures caused by freezing water, such as the February 1957 failure where 1000 tons (900 Mg) of rock fell out of the slope along the New York State thruway, closing all three south-bound lanes north of Yonkers.

2. Concrete foundations. The American Concrete Institute (ACI, 1982) defines durability as the ability of concrete to resist weathering, chemical attack, abrasion, or any other type of deterioration.

Durability is affected by strength, but also by density, permeability, air entrainment, dimensional stability, characteristics and proportions of constituent materials, and construction quality (Feld and Carper, 1997).

Durability is harmed by freezing and thawing, sulfate attack, corrosion of reinforcing steel, and reactions between the various constituents of the cements and aggregates. Damage to concrete caused by freezing could occur during the original placement of the concrete or after it has hardened. To prevent damage during placement, it is important that the fresh concrete not be allowed to freeze. Air-entraining admixtures can be added to the concrete mixture to help protect the hardened concrete from freeze-thaw deterioration.

Frost penetration and the formation of ice lenses in the soil can damage shallow foundations and pavements. It is well known that silty soils are more likely to form ice lenses because of their high capillarity and sufficient permeability that enables them to draw up moisture to the ice lenses. Feld and Carper (1997) describe several interesting cases of foundation damage due to frost action. At Fredonia, New York, the frost from a deep-freeze storage facility froze the soil and heaved the foundations upward 4 in. (100 mm). A system of electrical wire heating was installed to maintain soil volume stability.

Another case involved an extremely cold winter in Chicago, where frost penetrated below an underground garage and broke a buried sprinkler line. This caused an ice buildup that heaved the structure above the street level and sheared-off several supporting columns.

As these cases show, it is important that the foundation be constructed below the depth of frost action.

Usually there will be local building requirements on the minimum depth of the foundation to prevent damage caused by the formation of ice lenses. There have also been studies to determine the annual maximum frost depths for various site conditions and 50-year or 100-year return periods (e.g., DeGaetano, et al., 1997).